Social Media in China Essay Example for Free

Social Media in China Essay Introduction: According to Webster’s dictionary Social Media are â€Å"forms of electronic communication (as Web sites for social networking and microblogging) through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content.† The main purpose of social media as a marketing tool is to engage with consumers. Social media allows businesses to engage with consumers in ways that were never possible before. For most companies, creating a social media campaign is not the challenge. The challenge for most companies is their ability to measure effectiveness of their social media efforts. Measuring how a social media campaign translates into profits for a company is no easy feat. But there are some things companies can do to not only make their campaigns successful, but to measure the benefits of this success. The objective of this research paper is to explore how businesses can use social media as a successful marketing tool. Specifically, this paper will address how Chinese businesses can use social media as an effective marking tool. It will also explore the differences between social media in the United States and China. Social Media Platforms in the USA There are several types of social media which are used in the United States. The most commonly known are those which are considered to be â€Å"social networks.† These sites allow for individuals to make their own personal profile and connect with other individuals. Communications on these platforms come as video, messages and pictures. Facebook and MySpace are commonly used to keep in touch with friends and family. LinkedIn is a different type of social network whose primary focus is to connect business professionals with one another. Many businesses use these types of social media to share important information about the company activities with consumers. They can also use these types of tools to entice consumers to purchase products or visit their stores. These types of networks can also be used to target customers or to create a buzz about some new product or promotion going on with a specific company. Pepsi is a great example of how a company used Facebook to increase sales. â€Å"Pepsi used social networks, specifically Facebook, to gather custo mer insights about their DEWmocracy promotions. Their efforts lead to the creation of various varieties of their Mountain Dew brand.† By allowing the customer to decide what flavors they would like to see created, Pepsi gained great insight about the people who buy their product. Another type of social platform is what is known as a microblog. A microblog is a shorter condensed version of an actual blog. These platforms limited their users to 140 characters as opposed to regular blogs that allow users unlimited amount of characters. They are used for immediate and constant updating when things happen or even when they are happening. The purpose of the microblog is to get small bits of information to your â€Å"followers† as quickly as possible. Twitter is the most commonly known and most popular microblog in use today. With Twitter, a user can create their own account and then can elect to â€Å"follow† other users on the platform. They can choose to â€Å"follow† friends, family and even celebrities. Bu t from a business standpoint, there is more value in Twitter than just tweeting and retweeting. According to Schmidt, â€Å"Twitter can be used as a monitoring tool to get data that marketers need to make decisions. Companies now have ability to monitor what consumers think and feel about their specific product. One tweet from a company has the potential of reaching all 140 million Twitter users† (Schmidt.6). Though the microblog is a newer type of social media platform, Twitter has seen huge success since its birth in 2006. Marketers can capitalize on this platforms’ success by utilizing it in their business’s everyday marketing strategy. Blogs are also considered to be a type of social media, though less popular than the ones previously mentioned. A blog is similar to an online journal or diary but is used by several different people for different reasons. They are not limited in length and can be very informative or just for fun, depending on the author. The entries can also be short or long as well. Schmidt explains that, â€Å"the blog has a solid pla ce in social media because of it flexibility and capacity for interactivity. A blog reaches people in different ways than other mediums do so it is a good idea for companies to use this together with other social media outlets, not instead of them† (Schmidt.4). It is important to note, however, that if a company uses a blog, they must make sure they invest the time and energy to keep the information current and the posting frequent. Social Media in China Social media in China takes on a unique form compared to the rest of the world. Unlike other countries, the use of such social media sites like Facebook and Twitter are banned and blocked in China. â€Å"Rather than eliminate social media all together, these restrictions have resulted in a flourishing home-grown, state approved ecosystem in which Chinese-owned properties thrive† (Crampton.1). Social media has become integrated in the lives of Chinese people. Most internet users in Chinese experience the internet solely through social media. The Chinese platforms created are similar to those platforms used across the world. Like their US counterpart, the Chinese have developed numerous types of social media platforms. While other counties use Facebook, China has developed a platform called Renren. This â€Å"social network† has similar features to that of Facebook in which users create their own personal profile and connect with friends and family. This platform is commonly used to keep in touch with such people. This platform attracts college students and users can also upload video and personal information. However, unlike many other countries, China also has several other platforms which attract unique segments of the population. For example, Douban is a social media site that specifically attracts art students. You are likely to find individuals who are passionate about reading , culture and music. Another type of â€Å"social network†, KaixinOO1, is similar to Renren in that it allows users to create profiles. Unlike Renren, this site is utilized mostly by white collared professionals and is used to share more broad information as opposed to personal content. The Chinese have also utilized the microblog through there platform known as Sina Weibo. Again, this platform has similarities to that of Twitter. The interface works just like Twitter. Users elect to follow certain people and in turn other people can follow them. This platform has about 100 million registered users which consist of a board range of China’s internet population. Some of the people who utilize this type of social media include youth, celebrities, business professionals, and media personalities (Nooruddin.2). But what sets this country’s social media apart is not those platforms that are similar to those of other countries, but those interfaces uniquely utilized in China. An example is the utilization of Chinese bulletin board systems (BBS). These are â€Å"online forums where individuals can post questions and engage in discussions on any range of topics. More the 96% of Chinese online users have spent an hour or more a day on BBS sites. These users tend to be between the ages of 20 to 40 years old from various professional backgrounds. More than 80% of BBS users search for product information and of these users about 61.7% ask other BBS users for their opinion before making a purchase themselves†(Geng.6). These systems allow for users to post anonymously which encourages users to be honest in their reviews of certain products and services. As you can see, different social media platforms in china attract a distinct audience, making it easier for Chinese businesses to target specific consumers. However, while there are many different social media outlets in China, after having a chance to speak with Chinese natives, it seems that Webio is the most highly used by Chinese citizens. We will explore further how businesses in China use these different platforms to successfully use social media as part of their marketing mix. Social Media Differences between the Two Countries Upon reviewing the different platforms in both countries, one might conclude that there is no difference among those types of social media used in both countries. Though at first glance, this may be the case, there is much more to social media in China than simply the platforms which Chinese internet users utilize. Social media has been so deeply intenerated into the lives of the Chinese. In china, the social media is the internet; there is no real distinction. â€Å"Social media platforms and online behaviors vary in important ways from those that may be considered their international equivalents and this difference is not due to censorship,† (Crampton.2). The variations in usage are driven by language, culture and economical development. The platforms which individuals of different countries focus on can vary widely. This variation can occur not only between countries, but within a single country as well. One way to understand the differences between the uses in China verses The United States is by analyzing the differences among the platforms in both countries. Twitter and Sina Weibo are both microblogs used to have short quick communications with users. The differences between these two platforms are rooted mainly in language. Sina Weibo is the fastest growing microblog in China. Though it is similar to Twitter in that it allows users to post 140 characters, Weibo actually allows its users to post videos and photos. It also allows users to comment on other peoples updates and to add comments when reposting a friends message; all things which twitter currently lacks. One of the biggest advantages however, which Weibo has over Twitter is the â€Å"length of communications expressed via microblogs in Chinese verses English† (Crampton.4). Even though both platforms allow users to express 140 characters worth of information in a single post, those users communicated using Chinese have an upper hand. This is due to the fact that each Chinese character is a word. This allows users, but more importantly, companies which are utilizing this platform to engage with consumers, to share more information. The article, â€Å"Social Media in China: The Same, but Different,† shows how Dell utilized this language difference. For a promotion the company was running they posted this update on twitter: â€Å"Today’s deal: Get FREE Eco-Lite Sleeve with the purchase of any Dell Outlet Insprion Mini 10,† (Crampton.4). A similar message on a Chinese microblog for the same add read like this: â€Å"Dell’s National Day Sale runs from Se ptember 11 to October 8th. To celebrate the 60th anniversary with the motherland, Dell home computers is offering 6 cool gifts and deals on 20 computer models. These exciting offers will run nonstop for 4 weeks. Also, get a free upgrade to color casing and a 512MB independent graphics card, as well as other service upgrades. All offers are on a first com first serve bases† (Crampton.4). As one might notice, a 114 characters limit in Chinese translates into 434 characters in English. This turns microblogging in China into more of a blog-like platform. Though these two platforms are different in structure, as business promotion tools, they are one in the same. Businesses use both Webio and Twitter to create a dialog and to get information about what is going on with their company quickly to their users. According to Nielsen, brand information via social media in both China and the US spread through, â€Å"interactions with friends on social media platforms. They believe that their platforms can be used by business to achieve greater success than form traditional advertizing.† It is clear to businesses that these micro blogs are important not only to help create a dialog between the consumer and the business, but more importantly, these specific platforms are used to obtain higher immediate brand exposure, brand identity and brand awareness among consumers. While the social network site Facebook has become the default social network throughout most of the world, China has been able to establish similar platforms which are tailored to attract specific segments of people. Most of the social networks created in China have developed around the interests of people who belong to certain segments of the Chinese population. As mentioned before, Douban is focused on attracting those individuals who are art students. The website also allows registered users to record information and create content related to film, books, music, and recent events in Chinese cities. Unlike Facebook and Renren, it is opened to both registered and unregistered users. Not only can users connect according to their interests but the website also provides recommendations about books, music and more to its users. Based on this information, one can conclude that social media in China has been somewhat customized to meet the needs of several different segments of the population as well as to meet the interests of those people. Companies can benefit from these â€Å"targeted social networks.† Yet oddly, â€Å"many companies have failed to acknowledge the shifts in their marketing strategy. Social media has grown to become the shared commons where Chinese consumers offer opinions, ask for advice and discuss their interests which include brands. Thus, while in the past the internet could have been considered a lost opportunity in China, today, ignoring social media is a business risk† (Crampton.6). The article entitled, â€Å"Social Media: The new Hybrid Element of the Promotion Mix,† examines how the traditional marketing mix has been changed due to the rise of social media. Traditional Promotional Mix Verses New Promotional Mix Traditionally, marketing consists of the four â€Å"Ps,† product, price, placement and promotion. The promotional mix focuses on the promotion elements of marketing. Before social media, companies relied heavily on what is known as integrated marketing communications to interact with their consumers. These communications, â€Å"attempt to coordinate and control various elements of the promotional mix- advertising, personal selling, public relations, publicity, direct marketing, and sales promotion- to produce a unified consumer-focused message and therefore, achieve various organizational objectives as well† (Mangold and Faulds.1). Promotions are all about communication because promotions are the way a business makes its products known to both current consumers and potential ones as well. The goal of a promotion is to ensure that customers are aware of the existing products and it is also used to persuade customers that the product is better that the competing products on the market. It is a marketer’s job to remind customers’ why they want to buy their companies products. Traditionally, businesses spoke to their consumers through such mediums as TV ads, billboards and radio. It is also typical for a company to use sales promotions to influence consumers to buy. The rise of social media has flipped these traditional ideas of promotional marketing on its head. Due to the rise of social media, the â€Å"strategies for communicating with customers have changed significantly† (Mangold and Faulds.358). Mangold and Faulds suggest in their article, â€Å"Social Media: The new Hybrid Element of th e Promotion Mix,† that social media plays a hybrid role in the promotional mix. This is due in part to the fact that social media has changed the way which businesses can communicate with their consumers. Social media not only enables companies to speak directly to their consumers, but it also allows for consumers to communicate with one another on a large front. Companies can use such platforms as Facebook and Renren to communicate with their consumers. The company’s consumers can use these same platforms to give feedback about their experiences with that company’s product or service.â€Å"The second role of social media- enabling customers to talk to one another, is in away an extension of the traditional word-of-mouth communication† (Mangold and Faulds.359). What makes this word of mouth exchange unique is that it magnifies the communication. Before social media and with the traditional approach, individual consumers were only able to communicate their experience to a few friends. Consumers now have the ability to express their experience s to hundreds and thousands of people in the matter of a few keystrokes on a social media platform. This takes the control of what messages are sent to consumers away from the actual business and puts it into the hand of the consumer; it in turn limits the amount of control companies have over the content and dissemination of information (Mangold and Fauld.359). The question for businesses to explore: how can this power of social media be harnessed for the benefit of the organization? The best way to do this is by consistently engaging with the consumers by these platforms. Companies are in control when they are able to create a buzz about a specific product, when they are able to learn from customers and when they are able to successfully target customers. Divol, Edelman and Sarrazin explain how companies can use this control which social media gives them to create successful social marketing campaigns. Divol, Edelman and Sarrazin, authors of the McKinsey Quartly article entitled Demystifying social media believe that in order for businesses to be in control of social media conver sations, they must monitor consumer responses, respond to those responses, amplify their responses and make efforts to lead consumers to long term behavioral changes which will continue to keep them coming back to their company. They describe brand monitoring as â€Å"simply knowing and understanding what consumers are saying about the company’s product.† (Divol.4) They believe that even if a company does not engage in direct conversation with consumers on social media platforms, this information obtained by monitoring will allow them to gain insight on what their consumers want. It also provides advanced warning for negative publicity. But monitoring is just the start. Businesses also need to respond to consumers by pinpointing conversations for personal interaction with the consumer. This responding can be positive if it is done to provide customer service or to uncover certain leads or to deal with crisis management. Next, the authors believe that it is important to amplify their conversations with their consumers. They explain that â€Å"amplification involves designing your marketing activities to have an inherently social motivator that spurts broader engagement and sharing. This means that businesses should invite consumers to join into a conversation. They should also have ongoing programs and share new content. It is also important for businesses to provide opportunities for sharing back. Finally, businesses should focus on offering experiences that customers want to share to others† (Divol.6). An example of this amplification comes from Starbucks. â€Å"Starbucks wanted to increase awareness of its brand. To do this, the company launched a campaign which challenged their users to be the first to tweet a picture for one of the new advertising posters which the company had placed in six major cities providing the winners with $20 gift cards. This got millions of fans speaking about Starbucks and their current promotion. By giving consumers a reason to speak about a company’s brand, they are able to quickly and effortlessly create customer brand awareness and therefore, save millions of dollars in advertising† (Divol.7). Finally, the authors believe it is important to lead consumers along long term behavioral exchanges which will keep them coming back for more. Companies can influence behavioral changes by creating a buzz, asking for feedback from customers and creating promotions which actively involves consumers. In order to have successful marketing campaigns in the 21st century, mangers need to change their thin king and attitudes toward these new additions to the marketing mix. They need to realize, accept and understand that a large amount of information about their products and services are being talked about via social media outlets. They also need to understand that the communications occurring on these platforms are directly impacting all aspects of consumer behavior. Managers should be aware that â€Å"consumers are reducing their reliance on advertising and traditional elements of the promotional mix as a source of information to help make their purchasing decision,† (Mangold and Faulds.361). In order for marketing managers to drive a successful social media campaign, these managers need to learn to communicate with their consumers on the medium and not to speak at them as illustrated by the examples above. How can Social Media be used to Benefit Businesses? Though the social media platforms used in China and the US differ, the basic benefits of social media to businesses are the same. The main goal of social media in marketing campaigns is customer engagement. Just like with traditional marketing, social media can be utilized for customer engagement. As mentioned previously, social media allows the consumer to communicate on a massive scale to one another on their experiences with particular products. In order for a business to benefit from this, marketing managers need to focus their efforts on shaping the conversation. The following paragraphs explain ways in which businesses can take control of social media conversations. Consumers prefer to communicate with likeminded people. One way that organizations can control this is by providing platforms, which allow likeminded people to network. Organizations can create online communities which consumers with the same interests and values can come together to communicate about similar intere sts. These â€Å"networking opportunities do not have to take form in social media platforms to be effective. For example, movie premiers bring together die-hard fans who like to attend midnight showings so they can be the â€Å"first to know† about the movie. Similarly, Apple has effectively been able to drive iPhone fanatics together who wait in long lines to be the first to purchase the new product. Creating excitement through events and through online forums will benefit the organizations. As the authors state, â€Å" the experience of participating with likeminded individuals in highly anticipated events becomes memorable and is likely to e talked about for years to come† (Mangold and Faulds.361). This is the type of positive conversations organizations can benefit from. Consumers also feel most engaged when they are able to give feedback. This way they feel like they are being heard. Organizations can also use contests and free give a ways in order to engage with their consumers. However, it is important to remember that organizations want to have meaningful conversations with their consumers. If all their consumers are talking about is getting free stuff from them and not about the products and services that these organizations may offer, then that means that companies are not using social media effectively. A way in which organizations can effectively use contests for engagement is by having contests in which consumers are actively involved in promoting a certain product. â€Å"Enabling consumers to see others using the product can entertain and engage consumers while communicating product benefits† (Mangold and Faulds.362). Other ways in which organizations can utilize communication to consumers via social media is by providing information to consumers. Using social media platforms to introduce new products or to provide answers to questions are a few ways in which companies can insure that their consumers are being informed. Some companies have established special websites that allows consumers to connect to one another and gather more information about specific products or services which they are interested. For example, Procter and Gamble created portion of their website called â€Å"Ask Julia.† This section of the website provides detailed information on many subjects related to the products which PG provide to their consumers. The more informed you are, the more you will communicate it to others. At times, it is important for businesses to think outside of the box with their campaign. A way they can do this and attract attention to them is by doing something outrageous to get their consumers talking. For example, Burger King played a joke on it customers by telling them that the Whopper would no longer be sold. They then recorded their customer’s reactions to the news which they posted online for consumers enjoyment. These reactions got Burger King’s consumers talking. Sometimes it is important for businesses to have a little fun with their marketing techniques as Burger King did in this example. Consumers also enjoy exclusivity. People generally like to feel special. Businesses have the ability to control this type of special feelings. Feeling special can occur if businesses offer products, information and special deals which are only available to a specific subset of customers. These positive feelings will most likely translate into positive talk among consumers. Some other ways in which companies can get their consumers talking is by make people want to talk about them. When Apple launched their first iPhone, it changed the way people looked at phones forever. Companies should design products with talking points in mind. If companies provide exclusive offers to their consumers, it will also get them talking as well. It makes the consumer feel important to the company and thus should lea d to positive talks from consumers. Finally, companies can support causes that are important to consumers and utilize the power of stories to create meaningful conversations. By doing so, they can connect with those consumers which may be emotionally linked to a specific causes. Due to this linkage, these consumers may be more likely to purchase a company’s product. How can companies measure the effectiveness of social media? After doing a lot of research, I have found that both American and Chinese companies use the same or similar metrics to track their social media success. Since social media is fairly new in the marketing realm, most companies have struggled translating the effectiveness of their social media into actual numbers in term of return on investment for their companies. But companies can do themselves a favor by tracking specific metrics which can tell them how successful their campaigns are in terms of reach. In terms of social media, reach is defined as the number of people who see the conversations which occur between a specific business and other consumers or social media users in general. As stated before, the purpose of social media is to hold conversations with potential new customers on these platforms; it is all about engagement. In terms of conversation, it is important for a company to measure the number of conversations they have with their â€Å"fans† or â€Å"followers,† the speed of the responses they are getting from their fans or followers and the company’s ability to hold a single conversation. It is important to see what your fans are talking about. The conversations must be of quality and less so about what someone is getting from the company i.e. â€Å"free stuff.† But while social media thrives on conversation, the metrics that can be used to see the effectiveness of a social media campaign stretches much wider. The following lists some of the metrics that a company should look for in order to determine whether their social media campaign is really having an impact on their company: * Social Connections and Page Views: How much exposure is your site getting on social media platforms? It is important for any company to keep track of the number of followers they are obtaining through their social media platforms * Quality of Followers/Fans: According to â€Å"Thoughtful China,† it is important that companies realize that it is not just about the number of followers or fans that the company’s page has but also the number of followers or fans which each individual person who is following the company’s site has. This will drive the reach and the impact which the company is having over the whole social media platform. (Thoughtful China Video). * Engagement Rate: â€Å"A good social media marketer needs to know when he or she posts something that creates a reaction or follower engagement,† (Gold.1). It is important to keep track of positive and negative feedback gained from certain posts. It is also important for a company to keep track of what is known as the â€Å"retweet rate.† This is in essence is keeping track of the number of times you are retweeted every time you post a single tweet. This flows into the next metrics, reach. * The Reach of your Social Media Campaign: This includes a number of things. One of the main things to look for is your company’s â€Å"share of voice.† This simply refers to the number of people on social media which is talking about your company in comparison to your competitors. It is important for a company to think about reach in this manner; â€Å"Am I doing better than last week or last month and what did I do to improve or hurt my performance or reach?† (Gold.1). The more effort companies put into their social media campaigns, the higher the return. Studies show that if a company can convert â€Å"7% of fans or followers into customers this will translate into 40% of sales† (Thoughtful China Video). Since there are extremely high volumes of people using social media platforms, it is hard to say exactly how many people you engage with turn into buyers of your product. But since social media can be used all along the value chain, it is important for businesses to look at the ROI of social media in terms of its overall business impact, not just its impact on sales. Without impact measurements, it is extremely difficult for companies to justify investments in social media and to compare social media marketing with other marketing mediums. Key performance indicators are vital in making the case for social media. According to McKinsey Company, a comprehensive measurement rationale should consist of three levels of KPIs. Level one should consist of a basic KPI system that measures engagement and consumers feelings of the companies’ social media efforts on all different platforms. Metrics such as the ones mentioned above can be used to stratify this level measurement. The company also suggests that level two should consist of business case logic. McKinsey Company recommends that â€Å"companies should create business cases to assess the value of specific activates, like campaigns, or decisions, like platform choices† (McKinsey Company Buzz into Gold). An example could be tracking the value of a Facebook fan. A company should create a calculation that recognizes the average number of contacts created through one Facebook fan. The third and final level consists of gross rating points which will allow companies to make social media comparable across all platforms. McKinsey Company notes that â€Å"for traditional marketing, gross rating points (GRPs) measures advertising intensity of a campaign as a whole. This traditional rating can also be used as a metrics which is used specifically for social media. This measure would be based on the number and reach of the companies posting through multiple social media platforms and would be calculated as the number of people reached multiplied by the number of times these people are reached per day or week (which ever the company prefers). Based on the information above, it is clear that there are many ways in which companies can measure effectiveness of their social media campaigns. The question that needs to be answered now is are American and Chinese companies successfully measuring these metrics? The answer: some companies recognize the importance of these metrics more than others and are doing a better job of tracking this information than others. Here are just a few examples of Chinese and American companies who have used social media as a marketing tool successfully. AJ Bombers: An American Company who experienced social media success AJ Bombers is a burger joint located in Milwaukee Wisconsin. Joe Sorge, the owner of the restaurant changed the way he promoted his company and turned it strictly into social media marketing. He believes that successful social media marketing starts with a great product, something he believed his restaurant had; the best burger in town. Sorge decided to get rid of all forms of traditional marketing that he had previously used to promote his restaurant. Before making the switch to strictly social media, he relied on only using email marketing as a method of marketing his restaurants. Sorge started experimenting with Twitter. He first searched to see what people were saying about his restaurant and he eventually decided to create an account himself so that he could respond to what his customers where saying about his restaurant. By doing this, he was able to create meaningful relationships with his customers and began to see positive reactions from his customers whom he had communicated with via Twitter. The power of social media became evident when Sorge realized that his account had the ability to reach hundreds and thousands of people through his Twitter account. Even if he did not directly engage with some of his customers, they were able to see the conversations going on, and if they liked something they heard or saw, they were able to retweet it to friends and family. The restaurant was previously known for its events. When Sorge realized the benefits of social media, he quickly used this to help promote the events which occurred at his restaurants. He used social media platforms to drive sales for AJ Bombers. One example of an event that Sorge put on was the, â€Å"I’m on a boat badge party.† He partnered with foursquare to create a check in point for his restaurant. Then he used Twitter and Facebook to promote the event. This event allowed customers to earn an â€Å"I’m on a boat badge.† He also partnered with a local outdoors store to obtain boats which customers so that customers could earn their badge by taking part in challenges after checking in. During the event, more than 231 people checked in to the foursquare events page. The event resulted in the single best day of sales that the restaurant has ever seen and the employees had to turn away customers because they did not have enough room to accommodate everyone who showed up. Sorge believed that the word of mouth buzz created by this event through various social platforms and the speed at which the information traveled is what lead for this event to be one of the most successful events he has ever created. This example shows the how constant engagement with customers on social media platforms can be effective in attracting consumers to certain businesses. It also shows how fast communication happens via social media and how many people these conversations can potentially reach. This type of success is possible for all kinds of businesses if they know how to effectively engage with customers. IKEA China: Building a Loyal Following through Online Customer Engagement (Source: The China Observer) IKEA Group is the world’s largest furniture retail with over 280 stores in 26 countries. In 1998, IKEA chose Shanghai to penetrate the Chinese market. IKEA presently runs ten stores in nine cities in China and has achieved total sales of $755 million dollars with over 31 million customers visiting its stores in 2011. Since IKEA used a relatively conservative approach to opening new stores in China, IKEA location were limited, making it harder to reach the young generation of white collar consumers across China. The company found it challenging to build a distinctive brand and to influence Chinese consumers to purchase products since most people treated the IEKA stores as a place for entertainment and not to make purchases for new furniture. In October of 2010, IKEA decided to expand their emphasis on social media. The company started to organize events both real-world and virtual events to engage potential customers both online and offline. IKEA created its own profile on Douban, a Chinese social media platform which allows users to recommend, comment on and compare their favorite books, films and music. The company created a page which listed tips on decorating homes with IKEA products. In September 2011, the company launched on its page called â€Å"the dream home in films.† They encouraged users to upload screenshots of their favorite home furnishing styles from famous films and write a description of the scenes with each â€Å"episode† containing a different theme, focusing on different types of rooms in a virtual home. Participants could win gifts sponsored by IKEA. IKEA attracted a widespread and achieve engagement among Douban users; they are considered to be well-educated and creative urban Chinese. The online and offline event provided customers and potential customers with a way of expressing themselves which translated into a positive impression of the IKEA brand. IKEA’s profile page on Douban, increased to just over 30 thousand followers and 210 thousand visitors. IKEA was able to increase its sales by 20% in the 2012 fiscal year by investing in its brand in China through social media. Conclusion Businesses all over the world have switched gears and included social media as a part of their marketing efforts. With the ever evolving ways of the internet, it is important for businesses to realize how to use web platforms such as social media to help increase their bottom line. In order for companies to make sure they run a successful social media campaign, marketers need to educate themselves on the different ways to engage with their consumer on social media, and how to track these conversations in terms of ROI. Proper utilization of social media can lead to increased brand awareness, brand image but most importantly, the proper use of social media as a marketing tool can lead to increased sales. Works Cited Bodnar, Kipp. Generating Small Business Customers with Social Media.Hubspot.com. Web. Crampton, Thomas. Social Media in China: The Same but Different. China Business Review. ProQuest, 11 Jan. 2011. Web. 27 Oct. 2012. Divol, Roxane, David Eldmen, and Hugo Sarrzin. 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The Business Review. ProQuest, Dec. 2011. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. Turning Buzz into Gold. McKinseyCompany. McKinseyCompany, n.d. Web. 20 Jan. 2013. Gold, Harry. 14 Social Media ROI Metrics You Can Use Right Now! ClickZ. Click Z Marketing and News, 21 May 2012. Web. 21 Oct. 2012. http://www.clickz.com/clickz/column/2178428/14-social-media-roi-metrics. Social Media Metrics. Thoughtful Media Group. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2012. http://www.thoughtfulchina.com/en/social-media-metrics-en.html.

Neuroimaging Research To The Understanding Of Psychopathology Psychology Essay

Neuroimaging Research To The Understanding Of Psychopathology Psychology Essay Over the last ten years, neuroimaging techniques has been employed to an ever increasing extent in the investigation of the biological substrates of psychopathology (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). Non-invasive brain imaging techniques such as PET and fMRI have been successfully applied in the localization of sensory functions (van Eijsden et al. 2009). For more complex psychological processes such as language, fMRI is now used to guide surgical decisions regarding hemispheric dominance in patients with refractory epilepsy (van Eijsden et al. 2009). Although still in its infancy (Crowe and Blair 2008), neuroimagings existing contribution has been hailed as significant (Linden 2008, Radaelli et al. 2008). Reliable biomarkers are not known for most, if not all psychiatric disorders (Linden 2008). Limited knowledge concerning the aetiological mechanisms underlying disorders thwart efforts at primary prevention and hamper secondary prevention due to the lack of reliable, comprehensive prognostic markers (Glahn et al. 2008). The lack of pathognomic neural markers, difficulties achieving clinical consensus regarding diagnostic definitions and symptom heterogeneity within the existing diagnostic entities have encouraged neuroimagings pursuit of biomarkers and endophenotypes (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008); (Pan et al. 2009). The research agenda for DSM V underscores this theme working towards an aetiological and pathophysiological based diagnostic system rather than the current symptom and syndrome based approach (Pan et al. 2009). Neuroimagings contribution may be through refining, validating and augmenting existing diagnostic classifications or replacement of the existing phenomenologically d erived system with neuroanatomically defined biomarkers (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). Neuroimagings contribution may be constrained by limited knowledge regarding interregional connectivity and interactions within the brain (Honey et al. 2002). Furthermore, the pathways by which genetic and environmental risk factors interact and impinge upon behaviour ultimately manifesting as pathological symptoms is largely unknown (Glahn et al. 2008). Complexity is increased further by consideration of the points of discontinuity between psychopathology and normal variation (Glahn et al. 2008). To date, the majority of neuroimaging research has attempted to correlate functional, structural and chemical abnormalities of the brain with the presence and/or severity of symptoms (Radaelli et al. 2008). Critics argue that neuroimaging research encourages a segregationist approach to psychopathology, attempting to map complex functions onto discrete, localized brain areas (Honey et al. 2002). This tendency has been influenced by assumptions within cognitive psychology (van Eijsden et al. 2009), namely that mental functions are comprised of modules with identifiable, specific cognitive content processed by a computer like brain (van Eijsden et al. 2009). Thus, elements of psychological function are assumed to activate specific, reproducible brain regions, a model known as massive modularity(van Eijsden et al. 2009). Traditionally, neuroimaging techniques have been categorized according to their data acquisition methodology, focusing upon structure, function, connectivity, electrophysiology or underlying chemistry (Pine 2006). Recent advancements in multimodal imaging (MMI) enables an admixture of approaches attempting to integrate the strengths of different techniques (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). Rather than detecting actual neural transmission, fMRI relies on the paramagnetic properties of deoxyhaemoglobin, providing an indirect measurement of the coupling between neural activity and blood flow (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). Similarly, PET is an indirect measurement of neural activity measuring blood flow, metabolism or ligand-receptor interactions of particular neurotransmitters (Zimmer 2009). Compared with SPECT, PET offers increased spatial and temporal resolution and permits imaging of a greater range of brain activity than SPECT tracers (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). However, it does not offer equivalent spatial resolution to fMRI. DTI tractography images neural tract trajectories, enabling the modelling of white matter fibres localization, orientation, connectivity and integrity within the brain (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008); (Honey et al. 2002); (Thai et al. 2009). Neuroimaging research can adopt either a whole brain or region of interest (ROI) approach (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008) with important implications for interpretation. As ROI approaches examine fewer brain regions than whole brain univariate approaches such as VBM, they offer increased statistical power with a concomitant decrease in explanatory power (Ecker et al. 2010). In contrast, techniques such as VBM offer increased explanatory and moderate statistical power due to the necessity of multiple comparison corrections. Therefore, mass univariate approaches may be too conservative to detect subtle neuroanatomical abnormalities particularly with small samples (Ecker et al. 2010). Additionally, neuroimaging studies can be contrasted in terms of experimental design ranging from block, factorial to the most recently developed event-related designs. Event-related designs permit randomization of experimental conditions throughout scanning (Honey et al. 2002), allowing the response to a sing le event to be examined in a context-independent manner (Friston et al. 1998). This paper will evaluate the possible applications of neuroimaging research to the understanding of psychopathology in terms of its existing contribution and developments which may arise due to further technological innovations in the future. Initially, it will provide a brief introduction to a number of methodological considerations associated with neuroimaging research. Following this discussion, it will primarily focus upon neuroimagings contribution to aetiological research of psychopathology. In addition, it will evaluate the application of neuroimaging techniques to diagnosis, prognostic considerations and treatment. The paper will conclude with a review of recent technological developments within neuroimaging and evaluate the extent to which these innovations may further increase neuroimagings application to the understanding of psychopathology. Methodological and Technological considerations Critiques of neuroimaging research as The New Phrenology in its attempts to locate complex psychological phenomena in discrete brain regions have been described as the localization fallacy. The complexity of conducting research with patient groups and interpretation of associated results is emphasised when patient characteristics are considered (Honey et al. 2002). Psychiatric conditions are heterogenous in their presentation and difficult to define as discrete and homogenous entities. This increases the difficulty in obtaining a clinically homogenous sample for research purposes. Disorder and symptom heterogeneity manifesting as inconsistent neuroimaging findings may be a result of different aetiological pathways, variability in compensatory processes, chronicity of illness or the patients unique symptom profile (Honey et al. 2002). These inherent difficulties have been demonstrated by conflicting findings of hypofrontality in Schizophrenia (Keshavan et al. 2008) and led to the foll owing conclusion as long as we are not able to disentangle the heterogeneity question at the clinical level, it is not likely that heterogeneity at the aetiological and pathophysiological levels can be resolved (Peralta and Cuesta 2000). If a well matched sample is obtained, their symptomatic profile may be a manifestation of the final common pathway of disorder rather than representing a group matched for common aetiological mechanisms (Honey et al. 2002). To counteract these issues, many neuroimaging studies have adopted a symptom level approach, for example exclusively examining AVH (Honey et al. 2002). Critics have argued that symptom provocation studies may be imaging interference processes, compensation for diminished performance or other co-occuring symptoms (Honey et al. 2002). If the assumption that symptoms occur in isolation is correct, their location within discrete brain regions may over overly simplistic, it is more likely they are an element of complex, dynamic neural activity (Honey et al. 2002). The phenomenon of pure insertion asserts that a phenomenon of interest can be identified or manipulated in isolation from other mental processes (Honey et al. 2002). For example, linear increases in cognitive load (task demand) may not be associated with linear increases in neural activity. Furthermore, is it conceivable that ruminations in OCD can be isolated from other processes such as memory, attention and speech? (Honey et al. 2002). The subtraction technique is the most commonly employed method to identify brain areas that are active relative to one another; therefore, experimental task pairs should only differ in terms of one parameter. This is based on the assumption that by changing one parameter, that only one aspect of processing is altered (Nair 2005). Neuroimaging results may thus be misinterpreted as the cause of disorder or the disorder itself (Fuchs 2006). Thus, there are a number of important issues to consider when interpreting neuroimaging results such as whether differences reflect a symptom profile, a diagnostic entity and whether differences within these groups relate to state related phenomena or underlying aetiological differences at the genotype level (Honey et al. 2002). These ambiguities have led some researchers to question neuroimagings utility to aetiological research advocating a focus upon diagnostic imaging (Honey et al. 2002). Recent shifts towards a focus upon systems level, dynamic connectivity within the brain appears to be counteracting neuroimagings characterisation as the new phrenology (Zhou et al. 2009). The complexity of neuronal function has important implications for the analysis and interpretation of neuroimaging results. It is necessary to quantify both the relationship between neuronal activity and indirect measures of it via the haemodynamic responses and the associated temporal delay (Honey et al. 2002). It has been shown that BOLD signals are more responsive to increases rather than decreases in blood flow, known as the haemodynamic rectification effect (Keri and Gulyas 2003). These matters become increasingly complex when the contribution of neurotransmitter release and reuptake, receptor binding and electrical activity to rCBF, metabolic changes and behaviour are considered (Keri and Gulyas 2003). For example, low levels of neuronal activity may not be accompanied by rCBF changes, in a PET experiment, the lack of activation in this area does not exclude the area from being involved in the response under examination (Keri and Gulyas 2003). In contrast to sustained stimulati on, rapid changes in the brains functional state result in a brief uncoupling of perfusion from oxidative metabolism (Keri and Gulyas 2003). Imaging procedures must also model the effect of major blood vessels draining activated brain regions (Honey et al. 2002). Existing technology does not offer equivalent spatial resolution across the whole brain, there are also inherent difficulties differentiating between excitatory and inhibitory activation when using the proxy of the haemodynamic response (Honey et al. 2002). The complexity is further increased when the impact of experimental design is considered. fMRI images particularly those based on block designs frequently are static representations of haemodynamic activity averaged over time (Nair 2005). Furthermore, activity in some regions may only be detectable with more sophisticated event-related rather than block designs (Fusar-Poli et al. 2007). However, it has been shown that even in event-related fMRI paradigms that short inter stimulus intervals result in an overlap of haemodynamic responses to individual events (Ecker et al. 2008), thereby precluding confident analysis of condition specific activity. It has also been demonstrated that path co-efficients within SEM fMRI reflect changes in the temporal characteristics of the HFR induced by experimental design (Ecker et al. 2008) emphasising the effect of experimental design on effective connectivity studies. Recent developments In recent years there has been increased interest in furthering understanding of interactions between brain regions known as connectivity analysis (Sato et al. 2009b). Functional connectivity refers to the dynamic relationships between brain regions typically based upon correlational analyses (Thai et al. 2009). Effective connectivity studies infer causal or modulatory relationships between brain regions or networks and their directional, temporal interactions (Thai et al. 2009). SEM and DCM are the most commonly employed methods to investigate connectivity within fMRI data (Sato et al. 2009b). In SEM, the strength of an interaction is provided by a path co-efficient measuring the average influence of one ROI on another in a specified time period (Ecker et al. 2008). For example, using effective connectivity, it was demonstrated that the sACC and pACC had a strong directional influence on the right amygdale during an emotional processing task (Zhou et al. 2009). Rather than occurring as functionally distinct, feedforward sequential processing stages, it was shown that mental rotation performance includes both feedforward and feedback connections with indirect evidence of parallel processing (Ecker et al. 2008). Machine learning and pattern recognition methodologies, such as SVM are powerful techniques for the classification and prediction of mental states so called brain reading or decoding (Sato et al. 2009a); (Sato et al. 2009a). SVMs are used to identify statistical properties of imaging data which discriminate between groups of participants or brain states (Sato et al. 2009b), essentially, whether a new observation belongs to a training data set or otherwise. Not only do they offer the potential to categorize, their ability to anatomically localize discriminative information generated by the classification process presents the possibility of brain mapping (Sato et al. 2009a). Potentially, this methodology could be used to describe a healthy population, measuring the distance of subsequently tested participants from normative fMRI data (Sato et al. 2009b). For example, SVMs ability to distinguish between visual and auditory stimulation was 95.34% +/- 18.77 (Sato et al. 2009a). ANN and SV M based tools have employed in the identification and classification of pathology of patients with Alzheimers or Parkinsons disease from control participants (Bose et al. 2008). The development of imaging genetics offers the possibility of mapping the biological pathways and mechanisms whereby individual differences in brain function emerge and potentially predispose individuals to risk of psychological dysfunction (Viding et al. 2006). It enables the evaluation of the functional impact of brain relevant genetic polymorphisms with a view to understanding their impact on behaviour (Viding et al. 2006). For example, studies of healthy adult 5-HTTLPR S allele carriers found increased amygdala activation, reduced grey matter volume of the perigenual ACC and amygdale and altered functional connectivity of the pACC and amygdale relative to the LL genotype. Furthermore, 30% of variance in behavioural harm avoidance scores during this fMRI challenge paradigm was predicted by amygdala pACC functional connectivity (Viding et al. 2006). Aetiology Significant ambiguity remains surrounding the pathogenesis of schizophrenia (Keshavan et al. 2008). Although the majority of psychological disorders are thought to be multifactorial in origin (Glahn et al. 2008), genetic factors appear to exert a significant aetiological influence on the major psychoses, twin studies estimating heritability at 80% (van Os and Kapur 2009). Structural MRI studies have revealed reductions in whole brain and grey matter volume as well as increases in ventricular volume (Keshavan et al. 2008; van Os and Kapur 2009). Reductions have been observed in temporal lobe structures (in particular the hippocampus, amygdala and the superior temporal gyrus) and the prefrontal cortex, thalamus, AC and corpus callosum. There is evidence of a relationship between superior temporal gyrus volume and positive symptoms; medial temporal lobe reductions correlating with memory impairment. Qualitatively similar but less marked structural changes have been observed in the affec tive disorders. Whilst structural abnormalities may be consistently found in Schizophrenia, they are diagnostically non-specific and may be common amongst patients across diagnostic classifications. Evidence of progressive brain changes during the course of schizophrenia suggests that structural abnormalities may be a result of early and later developmental dysfunction (Karlsgodt et al. 2008). The onset of frank symptoms has been associated with progressive changes. Using longitudinal research designs, deviations from normative development can be examined (Serene et al. 2007). For example, longitudinal studies of early onset schizophrenia demonstrated progressive grey matter loss across the lateral surface of the brain, with treatment refractory patients displaying the most pronounced and rapid cortical grey matter loss. However, the explanatory power of progressive brain structural changes as the primary pathophysiological process within schizophrenia is diminished due to the prese nce of potentially confounding factors secondary to the illness such as symptom profile, severity, medication history and status and the duration of illness (Karlsgodt et al. 2008). Furthermore, structural changes are generally subtle and of relatively small effect sizes (Keshavan et al. 2008). Inconsistency has mired findings of hypofrontality in Schizophrenia, functional imaging meta-analysis have calculated moderate effect sizes for activated and resting state conditions. Conversely, once performance differences are controlled for, patients have shown increased prefrontal activation relative to controls perhaps indicative of an inefficient frontal response to task demands. There have been similarly inconsistent findings regarding other brain regions. Functional imaging research has found alterations in prefrontal and occasionally temporal lobe function (Shergill et al. 2007), with speculation regarding a specific abnormality in the reciprocal modulatory interaction of frontal areas and the hippocampus (van Os and Kapur 2009). Hyper- and hypoactive network responses have been demonstrated depending on experimental paradigm (van Os and Kapur 2009). Inconsistencies in the functional imaging literature may be a result of the diverse experimental designs employed, non-uniform standardization of resting state conditions, lack of control for performance differences, typically small sample sizes and medication confounds which curtail the interpretability of these results (Keshavan et al. 2008). MRS studies have corroborated regions implicated by structural and functional imaging results demonstrating reductions in neuronal and membrane integrity in at risk and early schizophrenic groups. However, it can be concluded that many of schizophrenias putative biomarkers are of less than robust effect sizes, non-specific and too time consuming or expensive to consider implementing as potential diagnostic biomarkers (Keshavan et al. 2008). It is proving difficult if not impossible to explain the features of this disorder and its associated functional deficits in terms of selective, focal abnormalities (Fusar-Poli et al. 2007). The disconnectivity hypothesis of the pathophysiological basis of vulnerability to psychosis implicates abnormal interaction/disconnectivity of the prefrontal cortex, temporal lobe and subcortical regions (Fusar-Poli et al. 2007). Findings of disturbed functional connectivity of the medial prefrontal, thalamic and cerebellar regions in relatives of patients with schizophrenia have provided support for this view (Fusar-Poli et al. 2007). Although evidence for disconnectivity in schizophrenia is strong, its relationship to aetiology, pathophysiology and implications for symptomatic behaviour remain unclear (Stephan et al. 2009). AVH have been found to activate a wide network of language areas in the frontal and temporal lobes and limbic areas such as the amygdale and hippocampus (Vercammen et al. 2009). The subjective intensity of AVH has been correlated with activation of the primary auditory cortex. Schizophrenic patients who experience AVH have been found to activate differential brain areas relative to healthy controls and non-hallucinating patients with schizophrenia, displaying altered activation of the anterior cingulate and superior temporal regions bilaterally (Mechelli et al. 2007; Shergill et al. 2007). DTI studies have demonstrated differences in the orientation of white matter fibres relative to patients without AVH and healthy controls. Examining the effective connectivity of AVH using DCM demonstrated a specific impairment of functional integration between the left superior temporal cortex and the dorsal part of the ACC during the evaluation of self and alien generated speech in patients with AVH (Mechelli et al. 2007). This implies a relationship between impaired functional integration and AVH experiences, Mechelli et al, speculate that a similar impairment in effective connectivity may diminish patients ability to process their own inner speech. Furthermore, a whole brain DTI study illustrated that propensity to experience AVH was associated with increased fractional anisotrophy (FA) within lateral aspects of the superior longitudinal fasciculi bilaterally, the main connection area between Wernickes and Brocas areas (Shergill et al. 2007). Similar differences in FA have been reported in at risk and first episode patients. However, it is possible that these connectivity changes may be a result of experiencing AVH rather than being causative in nature. Increased frequency of AVH may enhance connectivity in these regions. Studies conducted during the prodromal phase permit the prospective investigation of the pathophysiological processes underlying vulnerability and development of the disorder (Fusar-Poli et al. 2009; Pantelis et al. 2003).Neuroimaging studies have demonstrated qualitatively similar abnormalities to those evident in established schizophrenia and bipolar to those present in first episode psychosis and individuals without psychosis but with a strong familial risk (Pantelis et al. 2003). At risk individuals who subsequently developed psychosis had smaller grey matter volumes in the right medial temporal region, including the hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex, in a right lateral temporal region encompassing the superior temporal gyrus, a right inferior frontal region including the orbital portion of the inferior frontal gyrus and adjacent parts of the insula and basal ganglia and a cingulate region including the anterior and posterior cingulate gyrus bilaterally which mimics findings in probands of MZ twin pairs discordant for schizophrenia, first degree relatives of patients with psychosis and people with schizotypal personality disorder. Longitudinal examination of patients who transitioned to psychosis, showed a significant bilateral reduction in grey matter volume between baseline and follow up in the cingulate gyri, the left parahippocampal gyrus, left fusiform gyrus and left OFC (Pantelis et al. 2003). This study demonstrated that pathophysiological anomalies predate the onset of overt psychosis but that further grey matter volume changes are associated with the first expression of frank symptoms. It is unclear however, whether these changes represent a cause or effect of psychosis. Pantelis et al conclude that MRI may in the future prove a valuable tool in the identification of ultra high risk individuals. Neurochemical PET and SPECT studies investigating the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia with 18 F-dopa and 11 C-raclopride have shown that schizophrenia in its acute psychotic state is associated with an increase in dopamine synthesis, dopamine release and resting state dopamine concentration (van Os and Kapur 2009). Research has also demonstrated pre-synaptic dopamine overactivity in schizophrenic patients and first episode patients (Fusar-Poli et al. 2009) Studies of prodromal patients have demonstrated elevated Striatal 18 F-dopa uptake with levels approaching those of Schizophrenic patients (Howes et al. 2009). 18 F-dopa uptake in the ARMS was directly correlated with symptom severity and the degree of neuropsychological impairment. The most pronounced dopaminergic abnormality was found in the associative subdivision of the striatum in both schizophrenic patients and individuals with an at risk mental state (Howes et al. 2009). Thus, it has been suggested that pre-synaptic striatal dopamine function may be a worthwhile target for novel drug development and that these findings may provide a neurophysiological rationale for the introduction of anti-dopaminergic preventative intervention in high risk individuals (Howes et al. 2009). Multimodal studies of a verbal fluency task during the ARMS demonstrated an association between altered prefrontal activation and striatal hyperdopimergia (Fusar-Poli et al. 2009). Controlling for performance differences, there was increased activation of the left inferior frontal gyrus and the right middle frontal gyrus suggesting reduced efficiency or a compensatory process to achieve a similar behavioural response as controls. Improvement in prodromal symptoms has been associated with a normalization of the exaggerated inferior frontal response during a verbal fluency task. Previous findings linking the degree of elevation of striatal hyperdopimergia with symptom severity suggest that striatal hyperdopaminergia may underlie both symptoms and neurocognitive dysfunction although it is possible that another pathway is responsible. The observed correlation may represent the effect of prefrontal cortex on striatal dopamine or vice versa. Crucially, this study demonstrates that abnormal ities which were heretofore regarded as key pathophysiological features of Schizophrenia are correlates of vulnerability rather than sufficient for development of the disorder (Fusar-Poli et al. 2009). Interpretation of ARMS findings is difficult due to uncertainty regarding the degree to which they reflect trait or state factors, that is, psychosis liability or prodromal symptoms (Fusar-Poli et al. 2007). Thus, neuroimaging findings indicate changes in gray matter structure indicative of connectivity deficits at the level of synaptic connections and neuropil allied with white matter changes indicative of large scale deficits in connections between cortical regions (Karlsgodt et al. 2008). Although several biological abnormalities have been replicated (abnormally large ventricles, abnormal dopamine concentration and altered P300) they are not sensitive enough (usually only seen in 40-50% of patients) or not specific enough (seen in only 30% of first degree relatives) to be of diagnostic influence (van Os and Kapur 2009). Anxiety Disorders Neuroimaging research of anxiety disorders have implicated brain areas involved in the stress response as being associated with anxiety symptoms, including the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and amygdala (Engel et al. 2009). However, potential brain structures implicated in the pathophysiology of anxiety disorders are extremely difficult to image due to their sizes and locations these include the amydala, brainstem nuclei and periaquaductal gray (Engel et al. 2009). Neuroimaging of PTSD highlights many of the complexities involved in conducting this research. Complexities relate to symptom presentation in terms of their variable content and emotional arousal in particular during the retrieval of traumatic memories (Peres et al. 2008). Symptomatic heterogeneity is extremely difficult to control for, additional potential confounds include nature of the traumatic experience (s) and the length of time since its occurrence. It is questionable whether it is appropriate to generalize from i maging results based on a sample of war veterans to survivors of childhood abuse (Peres et al. 2008). However, the results of neuroimaging studies appear to offer support for two broad subtypes of PTSD, one being primarily dissociative, the other characterised by intrusions and hyperarousal (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). Structural studies have demonstrated reduced ACC and hippocampal volumes in studies across a variety of traumatic experiences. Increased amydala activation has also been observed (Crowe and Blair 2008). Impaired hippocampal function has been speculatively linked to the memory fragmentation process observed in PTSD (Peres et al. 2008). However consistent findings of structural or functional change, they do not necessarily imply a causative relationship. Depression Research investigating the pathophysiology of depression have highlighted decreased anterior paralimbic and cortical activity in both major and bipolar depression (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). These decreased activation patterns are found to reverse with successful treatment. For example, in studies of major depression it has been observed that diminished activation of the dorsalateral prefrontal cortex can be increased following effective treatment. PET studies of the serotonin transporter SERT have demonstrated increased thalamic SERT in depressed patients relative to controls. Across the affective disorders, findings of hyperamydala and hypofrontality have led to speculation that these abnormalities may represent a critical pathway or potential predictive biomarker for those at risk of future development of psychopathology (Viding et al. 2006). However, it remains unclear as to whether these findings represent state or trait related function. The search for trait related biomarkers offers the potential to uncover early warning signs of impending psychological disorder as they may be present prior to symptom onset (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). The clarification of state related changes affords the possibility of monitoring differential responses to treatment over time (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). Cautious interpretation of existing neuroimaging findings is advised due to the complexity of emotional networks and lack of understanding regarding their integration with higher cognitive processes (Malhi and Lagopoulos 2008). Diagnosis As of yet there are a limited number of neuroimaging studies attempting to classify or categorize disorder (Glahn et al. 2008). Ongoing research endeavours to uncover pathophysiological biomarkers complements the development of diagnostic imaging systems. The discovery of biomarkers of schizophrenia may assist in early diagnosis and haveprognostic value (Bose et al. 2008). Initial diagnostic research efforts focused on measurement of striatal D2 receptor levels. Although it appears that striatal D2 receptor levels are elevated in schizophrenia, inconsistent and variable PET and SPECT results (possibly related to samples tested) have precluded its use as a diagnostic variable (Bose et al. 2008). Machine learning and pattern recognition techniques provide methods for analysing imaging data that may improve the sensitivity and specificity of diagnosis (Bose et al. 2008). Using ANN modelling of striatal [18F] fluro-L-DOPA influx constants, it was found that an ANN model correctly classified 84% of schizophrenic patients and 74% of controls (Bose et al. 2008). Sensitivity analysis revealed that the posterior putamen and anterior caudate nucleus were the most important areas within the ANN classification. The addition of multiple risk facto rs to the ANN classifier such as neuropsychological, genetic or structural imaging results may improve the ANN classifiers accuracy further (Bose et al. 2008). Bose et al, 2008 suggest the potential util

CIA’s 50 Years of Corrupt Drug Trafficking :: Argumentative Persuasive Papers

CIA’s 50 Years of Corrupt Drug Trafficking The CIA’s 50-year history of smuggling drugs into America is generating hatred for the United States throughout the world. Like Pontius Pilate, CIA washes their hands of the human tragedies and the corruption of government offices. They do this by remaining and by refusing to recognize the evidence, supporting corruption. For the past 50 years, the CIA has abused its power by deliberately drugging and corrupting America; and therefore should be prosecuted. According to the constitution, the people for the people originally created the government to be a group of elect â€Å"organizers† (not controllers) employed. One can say the CIA is a mutated part of the US government. The CIA was created when a Wall Street lawyer and banker wrote The National Security Act of 1947. Clark Clifford was the man who brought the CIA backed drug bank BCCI into the United States. CIA heroin trafficking moved in the 1960’s and 1970’s from the Turkey-Marseilles connection to the Asian connection. For decades until the 1950s, Asian government supported the opium trade, because money was flowing in as long as the opium was flowing out. By the early 1960s, the mountain areas of Southeast Asia produced most of the world's opium. In the early 1950’s in Southeast Asia, the CIA organized the Nationalist Chinese army to start a war against Communist China. This Chinese army became the opium distributors of the â€Å"Golden Triangle† (parts of Burma, Thailand and Laos). The â€Å"Golden Triangle† has the most abundance of opium and heroin in the world. In order to smuggle drugs, the CIA’s main airline, Air America, flew drugs all over Southeast Asia. (Robbins 154) From the early 1950’s to early 1970’s during U.S. military involvement in Laos, Indochina, opium and heroin were flown by â€Å"Air America† into many countries, including Vietnam. As a result of CIA’s drug smuggling, Southeast Asia became the source of 70% of the world’s opium and heroin. South Vietnam was completely corrupted by a heroin trade that came from Laos, thanks to the CIA. The Hmong culture in Laos provided 30,000 men for the CIA's secret Laotian army. But in the process, opium production took over Hmong culture. To support the Hmong economy, the CIA's â€Å"Air America† transported raw opium out of the Laotian hills to the labs. By mid-1971, Army medical officers estimated that fifteen percent of American GIs were addicted (Stich 142).

Considering Culture in the Selection of Teaching Approaches for Adults :: Adult Education Learning Cultural Essays

Considering Culture in the Selection of Teaching Approaches for Adults Adult educators are increasingly committed to designing learning that takes into account cultural differences. We are discovering that â€Å"valuing† diversity is not enough to enable educators from the dominant culture, particularly European Americans living in the United States, to recognize difference and know how to change instruction so that learners who have felt marginalized feel visible and valued. This Digest examines the different dimensions of culture that are relevant to the adult learning context, speaking primarily to the case of the United States, including both the personal cultures of learners and educators, and the culture of the larger social political environment. It explores how cultural values permeate instruction and looks at several approaches that take culture into account. What Is Culture, Anyway? The simplest definition of culture includes those values, beliefs, and practices shared by a group of people. Social scientists and anthropologists vary on their definitions of what comprises a culture, subculture, or microculture, but for practical purposes, the notion of sharing a common worldview is often enough for individuals who find themselves moving between multiple cultures. Culture can be subtle, and what is considered cultural can evolve over time. For example, gender, religion, disability, sexual orientation, and age might not have been considered dimensions of culture 25 years ago. But today we study gender communication differences, the influence of religious views on decisions and behaviors, and the assumptions that can or cannot be made depending upon a person's physical ability, sexual orientation, or age. Educators need to be mindful that they cannot assume they know the cultural background of their students; even the seemingly homogenous classroom necessitates an e xpectation and active exploration of multiculturalism. Culture is an attribute of individuals, of small groups, of organizations, and of nations; a single person can belong to a multiplicity of cultures, any one of which may be important at any given time (Brislin 1993). For example, the most salient dimension of culture for a 50-year-old woman named Emma enrolled in a course to learn a new software program may be age, as she observes the ease with which her 22-year-old classmates negotiate the intricacies of the program. When Emma participates in a racial dialogue experience, she is very aware that her ethnic/racial identity as a European American is preeminent. And if Emma were Deaf, considering a graduate degree, it would be critical for her to find a program that actively facilitated her use of American Sign Language interpreters.

Marine Biology :: essays research papers

MARINE BIOLOGY CASE STUDY LAB - PART 2 Analysis 1. By running the programming with a fish.dat file containing the information for a 2 x 2 tank size, and changing the starting positions for fish A, B, and C, according to the problem, I was able to evaluate the random sequence of steps taken by each fish. The fish move in sequence of A, B, and then C. Then they move according to open slots. If a fish is covered on both sides by another fish, it is unable to move and, therefore, stays in that exact position. Analysis 2. The following is a diagram of what we predicted for the outcome of the default configuration: A C E _ B H D F G And this is a diagram of where the fish actually moved to when running the program with the current configuration: A C E D B H F G _ My prediction was inaccurate because I did not move the fish in their correct order. Instead, I proceeded to move the fish in the order of whichever came closer to an open space. Analysis 3. The 1000 x 1000 matrix was unable to display any data visible to the user on the console. It exceeds the screens limit of display. I discovered that the largest matrix possible for the console would be a matrix with the size of 23 x 79. Every time that I ran the program with these specifications, I found that the fish always traveled the first step down (a total of 10 tries). Analysis 4. When that data file contains two fish located within the same spot, the executable displays at the top of the console error, attempt to create fish at non-empty: (4,4), and then goes on to only display the first fish, A. Analysis 5. The sequence of fish positions does matter when you want certain fish names at certain locations within the

Light Bulb, Invention and Purpose

In 1880, Thomas Alva Edison invented the incandescent light bulb and patented it. It’s an invention that has been around since the 1800's. This invention has significantly, affected society by allowing the world to create a comfortable com/%EF%BB%BFwhy-school-environment-is-important/">safe environment. Edison had come up with a 16-watt bulb that lasted for over 1,500 hours. Edison's light bulb needed improvements, and those improvements are the reason we have light bulbs today.The light bulb was invented by using a low current electricity, a small carbonized filament, and an improved vacuum inside the globe; this was not an original invention by Edison this was an improved invention by Edison from 50 years ago.Edison's bulb design had a pointy top but looked similar to the light bulbs you would see today. The socket was at the base, just as light bulbs used today. The electric light had a thin carbonized cotton thread filament sealed inside a fragile glass vacuum tube. The bu lb worked by passing direct current through the filament.Edison carried out experiments with over 6,000 filaments in order to pick the perfect one that would glow well and last a long time. He also tried many different materials and looked at the efficiency of different filament diameters, structures, and shapes.He looked at stranded and unstranded wired. He tried oval and horseshoe shaped filaments. he also determined whether to use a vacuum pump or remove air from the tube or to let the filament burn out until it was out of oxygen. Edison was able to produce a reliable, long-lasting source of light. The idea of electric lighting was not new, and a number of people had worked on, and even developed forms of electric lighting. If it hadn't had been for Thomas Edison we would be using candles, oil lamps, and gas lamps for light sources.Today the light bulbs are used in lamps, ceilings, car headlights, street lights, christmas lights, and much much more. The light bulb has evolved int o colored lights, compact fluorescent lamp(CFLs), and various other types.The impact of Edison's breakthrough was significant in the history if electric lighting. His work helped point future inventors in the right direction. The vacuum tubes are still used today, that captures the improvements of the invention that Edison put into action. It provided the industry with the bases of an efficient lighting system.

Bios 101 Demography Lab Report

Melissa Morales Bios 101 Spring 2013 Demography- Human Life History Introduction Demography is the study of human populations. It studies the size, composition and distribution of a population, and the process through which a population changes. Demography allows us to track changes over time and to depict how different periods in history change population dynamics. Births, deaths, migration and emigration, jointly produced the change within a population (Biological Science). Demography is also a central component of social contexts and social change.Patterns of survival vary depending upon the environment. Age is also an important component for many populations because fecundity and survivorship frequently vary with age. Humans are one species whose fecundity and survivorship are affected by age and the environment. One way that biologists attempt to distinguish patterns in survivorship rates is to use a life tables. Life tables permit them to keep track of how long different parts of the population have lived. A life table can also be used to predict the probability of the survival of an individual at any given time interval (Biological Science).A cemetery is an excellent place to study human demography. Gravestones are marked with the date of birth and date of death of a deceased person. From this information one can calculate death rates and draw survivorship curves for the â€Å"population†. A survivorship curve is a graphical representation of the chance that an individual will survive from birth to any age (Biological Science). By comparing and contrasting survivorship curves for different time periods, one may look for historical trends in demography over a period of time. MethodsIn this investigation, data was collected from a local cemetery. Information was recorded information from 50 headstones, where the individual was born between 1870 and 1930. The dates of birth and dates of death were recorded for each headstone. The headstones were rand omly chosen from any area in the cemetery. Then the age at death was calculated for each of the 50 individuals. The data was then used to create a survivorship curve. Results Part 1: Fecundity Part 2: Mortality x| D(x)| S(x)| l(x)| 0| 0| 50| 1. 0| 1| 5| 45| 0. 9| 2| 3| 42| 0. 84| 3| 7| 35| 0. 7| 4| 5| 30| 0. 6| | 4| 26| 0. 52| 6| 11| 15| 0. 3| 7| 7| 8| 0. 16| 8| 7| 1| 0. 02| 9| 1| 0| 0| x= age intervals of 10 years (1-10, 11-21†¦etc. ending at age 98) D(x)= number of individuals dying at that age S(x)= number of individuals alive during that interval Discussion A survivorship graph shows, which age categories, are most likely to die, in that environment. The overall shape provides a clue about life history strategy (Type I, II, or III). This data was collected from a subset of human population and may have particular biases depending upon social class, religious traditions, and economic factors.We assumed that all the individuals had similar living situations. According to the data, more individuals died between the ages of 55-65. Based on the demographic data from this lab, multiple conclusions may be drawn. Living conditions were probably far worse in the past. This causes death and birth rates to go down because of disease. Which causes the population size to decrease. There might have also been diseases affecting older people, which could explain why that range of ages had the most individuals dying at that age.